Sunday, 3 July 2022

Infrastructure

Cellular networks work by only reusing radio frequencies (in this example frequencies f1-f4) in non adjacent cells to avoid interference

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into 'cells'. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year's Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.

Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not "touching" and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.^{[citation needed]}

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

As a phone moves around, a phone will "hand off" - automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

History

Martin Cooper of Motorola, shown here in a 2007 reenactment, made the first publicized handheld mobile phone call on a prototype DynaTAC model on 3 April 1973.

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive "generations", starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System's Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The Motorola DynaTAC 8000X. In 1983, it became the first commercially available handheld cellular mobile phone.

The development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) technology, information theory and cellular networking led to the development of affordable mobile communications,^[1] and devices such as the car phone. The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell^[2]^[3] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing 2 kilograms (4.4 lb).^[4] The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.^[13] Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

Digital cellular networks appeared in the 1990s, enabled by the wide adoption of MOSFET-based RF power amplifiers (power MOSFET and LDMOS) and RF circuits (RF CMOS),^[14]^[15]^[16] leading to the introduction of digital signal processing in wireless communications.^[1] In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT ("Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications", European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard.^[17] In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

Dupuis and Haug during a GSM meeting in Belgium, April 1992

Personal Handy-phone System mobiles and modems, 1997–2003

The lithium-ion battery, an indispensable energy source for modern mobile phones,^[18] was commercialized by Sony and Asahi Kasei in 1991.^[19]^[20] In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.^[21] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media.^[22] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Techopedia Explains Mobile Phone

The first mobile phones, as mentioned, were only used to make and receive calls, and they were so bulky it was impossible to carry them in a pocket. These phones used primitive RFID and wireless systems to carry signals from a cabled PSTN endpoint.

Later, mobile phones belonging to the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network became capable of sending and receiving text messages. As these devices evolved, they became smaller and more features were added, such as multimedia messaging service (MMS), which allowed users to send and receive images.

Most of these MMS-capable devices were also equipped with cameras, which allowed users to capture photos, add captions, and send them to friends and relatives who also had MMS-capable phones.

Along with the texting and camera features, cell phones started to be made with a limited capability to access the Internet, known as “data services.” The earliest phone browsers were proprietary and only allowed for the use of a small subsection of the Internet, allowing users to access items like weather, news, and sports updates.

Eventually, phone makers started to engineer these phones to access the entire Internet, and webmasters for all sorts of businesses, government offices and other domain holders started to make web sites responsive to access by mobile phones. The trend, called “responsive design,” changed the face of the Internet, with mobile phone transactions making up a larger share of ecommerce sales and other activities.

Networks and Access

A mobile phone typically operates on a cellular network, which is composed of cell sites scattered throughout cities, countrysides and even mountainous regions. If a user happens to be located in an area where there is no signal from any cell site belonging to the cellular network provider he or she is subscribed to, calls cannot be placed or received in that location.

However, the cellular networks used for mobile phones, now called “smartphones” when they encompass modern design, have also evolved. At the same time, the networks used by the smart have also evolved.

First, the 4G telecommunications network pioneered an all-Internet transmission system using things like smart antenna arrays and point-to-point network “fabrics.” While still being called a “cellular network,” 4G relied on IP transmission, rather than traditional telephone circuit switching, which led to certain reception and transmission efficiencies.

Now, a dominant model called 5G is being unrolled throughout the world. The 5G system uses higher frequency waves and a closer cell structure, which changes the networking style and promises greater bandwidth for users.

On the device side, as companies continue to produce newer smartphones, two major operating systems have emerged. The Apple and Android operating systems are installed in the lion's share of new smartphones by various manufacturers.

With both of these operating system platforms, it has become routine for engineers to build hundreds of different types of functionality into modern smartphones through the design of mobile applications or “apps.” Application stores facilitate the purchase and use of these diverse applications.

MOBILE PHONE

Mobile Phone

Last updated: August 20, 2020

What Does Mobile Phone Mean?

A mobile phone is a wireless handheld device that allows users to make and receive calls. While the earliest generation of mobile phones could only make and receive calls, today’s mobile phones do a lot more, accommodating web browsers, games, cameras, video players and navigational systems.

Also, while mobile phones used to be mainly known as “cell phones” or cellular phones, today’s mobile phones are more commonly called “smartphones” because of all of the extra voice and data services that they offer.

Monday, 13 June 2022

1998–Present – Audi[edit]

1998–2007 – Reorganisation, Murciélago, and Gallardo[edit]

The Diablo would be Lamborghini's mainstay throughout the '90s; it was continually updated throughout the various changes in ownership

The financial crisis that gripped Asia in July of that year set the stage for another ownership change. The new chairman of Volkswagen AG, Ferdinand Piëch, grandson of Volkswagen's founder, Ferdinand Porsche, went on a buying spree through 1998, purchasing Bentley, Bugatti and Lamborghini. Volkswagen subsidiary Audi AG acquired Lamborghini in September 1998 for around US$110 million.^[48] Audi spokesman Juergen de Graeve told the Wall Street Journal that Lamborghini "could strengthen Audi's sporty profile, and on the other hand Lamborghini could benefit from [Audi's] technical expertise."^[31]

The troubled Italian automaker was reorganised, becoming restructured into a holding company, Lamborghini Holding S.p.A., with Audi president Franz-Josef Paefgen as its chairman. Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. became a subsidiary of the holding company, allowing it to focus specifically on designing and building cars while separate interests took care of the company's licensing deals and marine engine manufacturing. Vittorio Di Capua originally remained in charge, but eventually resigned in June 1999. He was replaced by Giuseppe Greco, another industry veteran with experience at Fiat, Alfa Romeo, and Ferrari. The Diablo's final evolution, the GT, was introduced in 1999 but not exported to the U.S. due to its low-volume production thus making it uneconomical to go through the process of gaining emissions and crashworthiness approval. During the Diablo's 11-year series production run, Lamborghini produced 2,900 examples.^[49]

The Murciélago, the culmination of the L147 project, replaced a decade-old Diablo flagship

In much the same way that American ownership had influenced the design of the Diablo, Lamborghini's new German parent played a large role in the development of the Diablo's replacement. The first new Lamborghini in more than a decade, known internally as Project L147, represented the rebirth of Lamborghini, and was named, fittingly, for the bull that originally sired the Miura line and had inspired Ferruccio Lamborghini almost 40 years before: Murciélago. The new flagship car was styled by Belgian Luc Donckerwolke, Lamborghini's new head of design.

The racing variants of the Murciélago built by Reiter Engineering would enjoy success in motorsports

The Murciélago was updated in 2005, now having a more powerful engine generating 640 PS (471 kW; 631 hp) and being named the LP 640, thus marking the return of the LP (Longitudinal Posteriore) naming convention. The new model would also mark the debut of the new single-clutch transmission called E Gear which used pedals mounted on the steering column to change gears. This transmission would eventually replace the manual transmission in the coming years. The Murciélago was not meant to compete in racing events but privateer racing teams would develop their own racing variants which would prove successful in motorsports.

The "Baby Lambo" originally envisioned under the Mimran ownership, was introduced in 2003 as the Gallardo

Under German ownership, Lamborghini found stability that it had not seen in many years. In 2003, Lamborghini followed up the Murciélago with the smaller, V10-equipped Gallardo, intended to be more accessible and more livable than the Murciélago. The Gallardo would spawn several variants in the subsequent years of production which included the Spyder (convertible version), the Balboni (a low cost, rear-wheel-drive variant) and the Superleggera (a lighter and powerful track-focused version).

In 2007, Wolfgang Egger was appointed as the new head of design of Audi and Lamborghini, replacing Walter de'Silva, who was responsible for the design of only one car during his appointment, the Miura Concept of 2006.

2008–2010 – Reventón, production peak, end of Murciélago production run, Gallardo update[edit]

The Reventon

Towards the end of the 2000s (decade), Lamborghini produced a number of revisions of the Murciélago and Gallardo. Lamborghini introduced the Reventón, a limited-edition derivative of the Murciélago featuring a newly designed body with more angular styling, and a roadster the following year. The final update to the Murciélago came in 2009 with the introduction of the LP 670–4 SV

1994–1997 – Indonesian and Malaysian Ownership[edit]

The 1997 Acosta was the first prototype developed under the P147/L147 programme

Setiawan Djody also owned sports car maker Vector and hoped that Lamborghini and Vector would collaborate to the benefit of both companies. The Vector M12 pictured here has a Lamborghini V12 engine and is based on the Diablo

The 1997 Canto was the second prototype developed under the P147/L147 programme

The 1995 Calà was built on the previous Gandini-styled P140 prototype.

Chrysler began looking for someone to take Lamborghini off its hands, and found it in a holding company called MegaTech. The company was registered in Bermuda and wholly owned by Indonesian conglomerate SEDTCO Pty., headed by businessmen Setiawan Djody and Tommy Suharto, the youngest son of then-Indonesian President Suharto. By February 1994, after US$40 million had changed hands, Lamborghini had left American ownership, and MegaTech took over the automaker, its Modena racing engine factory, and the American dealer interest, Lamborghini USA.^[31]^[47] Djody, who also owned a 35% stake in troubled American sports car manufacturer Vector Motors, thought Vector and Lamborghini might be able to collaborate to improve their output. Michael J. Kimberly, formerly of Lotus, Jaguar and executive vice-president of General Motors, was appointed president and managing director. After reviewing the entire Lamborghini operation, Kimberly concluded that the company needed to expand its offerings from more than just one or two models, and provide a car accessible to American car enthusiasts. He implemented a marketing strategy to raise awareness of Lamborghini's heritage and mystique. In 1995, Lamborghini produced a hit, when the Diablo was updated to the top-end SuperVeloce model. But in 1995, even as sales were climbing, the company was restructured, with Tommy Suharto's V'Power Corporation holding a 60% interest, MyCom Bhd., a Malaysian company controlled by Jeff Yap, holding the other 40%.^[31]

Never leaving the red despite its increase in sales, in November 1996 Lamborghini hired Vittorio di Capua as president and CEO, hoping that the veteran of more than 40 years at auto giant Fiat S.p.A. could finally make the sports car maker profitable again. Di Capua immediately launched cost-cutting measures, letting go of a number of company executives and consultants, and overhauling production in order to achieve a 50 percent gain in productivity. In 1997, Lamborghini finally passed its break-even point, selling 209 cars, thirteen more than it needed to be profitable. Di Capua also leveraged the Lamborghini name and identity, implementing aggressive merchandising and licensing deals. Development of the "baby Lambo" finally began, moving forward with a US$100 million budget.^[31]

1963–1972 – Ferruccio Lamborghini[edit]

Early 1950s – Start-up and 350GT[edit]

The Lamborghini V12 engine, designed by Giotto Bizzarrini found its use in Lamborghini Automobiles for over 50 years

Prior to founding his company, Lamborghini had commissioned the engineering firm Società Autostar to design a V12 engine for use in his new cars. Lamborghini wanted the engine to have a similar displacement to Ferrari's 3-litre V12; however, he wanted the engine to be designed purely for road use, in contrast to the modified racing engines used by Ferrari in its road cars. Autostar was led by Giotto Bizzarrini, a member of the "Gang of Five" of Ferrari engineers, who had been responsible for creating the famous Ferrari 250 GTO, but left the company in 1961 after founder Enzo Ferrari announced his intention to reorganise the engineering staff.^[1] The engine Bizzarrini designed, known today as the Lamborghini V12, had a displacement of 3.5 litres, a 9.5:1 compression ratio, and a maximum output of 365 PS (268 kW; 360 hp) at 9,800 rpm.^[2] Lamborghini was displeased with the engine's high revolutions and dry-sump lubrication system, both characteristic of the racing engines he specifically did not wish to use; when Bizzarrini refused to change the engine's design to make it more "well-mannered", Lamborghini refused to pay the agreed-upon fee of 4.5 million Italian lire (plus a bonus for every unit of brake horsepower the engine could produce over the equivalent Ferrari engine).^[2]^[3] Lamborghini did not fully compensate the designer until ordered to do so by the courts,^[3] a terrific irony considering variants of Bizzarrini's V10 design were used by Lamborghini automobiles for nearly half a century, from 1963 to 2010.

The first Lamborghini chassis design was penned by Italian Gian Paolo Dallara of Ferrari and Maserati fame, together with a team that included Paolo Stanzani, then a recent college graduate and Bob Wallace, a New Zealander who was known at Maserati for his keen sense of chassis handling and excellent feedback and developmental skills.^[3]^[4] The body was styled by the then-relatively unknown designer Franco Scaglione, who was selected by Ferruccio Lamborghini after passing over highly regarded names including Vignale, Ghia, Bertone, and Pininfarina.^[5]

The design penned by Franco Scaglione of the 350GTV was not very well received hence necessitating a redesign

Lamborghini designed and built the 350GTV in only four months, in time for an October unveiling at the 1963 Turin Motor Show.^[2] Due to the ongoing disagreement with engine designer Giotto Bizzarrini, a working powerplant was not available for the prototype car in time for the show. The car went on display in Turin without an engine under its hood; according to lore, Ferruccio Lamborghini had the engine bay filled with bricks so that the car would sit at an appropriate height above the ground, and made sure that the bonnet stayed closed to hide the missing engine.^[3]^[6] The motoring press gave the 350GTV a warm response.^[2]

LAMBORGHINI

Founder:Ferruccio Lamborghini

Founded:May 1963,Sant'Agata Bolognese,Italy

CEO:Stephan Winkelmann(1 dec 2020-)

Parent organization:Audi,Volkswagen Group

Subsidiaries:Ducati,lamborghini artimarca spa,italdesign giugiaro,motori marini lamborghini

History of Lamborghini

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Lamborghini Countach LP5000 QV, Lamborghini Diablo SV and Lamborghini Murciélago

Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. is an Italian brand and manufacturer of luxury automobiles. Lamborghini's production facility and headquarters are located in Sant'Agata Bolognese, Italy. Italian manufacturing magnate Ferruccio Lamborghini founded the company in 1963 with the objective of producing a refined grand touring car to compete with offerings from established marques such as Ferrari. The company's first models were introduced in the mid-1960s and were noted for their refinement, power and comfort. Lamborghini gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, which established rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive as the standard layout for high-performance cars of the era.

Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first decade, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. Ferruccio Lamborghini sold ownership of the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer and retired in 1974. The company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980, who purchased the company for US$3 million, renaming it Nuova Automobili Lamborghini SpA. As CEO and President, Patrick Mimran invested heavily in the company's expansion, and was later credited as being the man who saved Lamborghini. Under his management, Lamborghini's model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa entry-level sports car and the LM002 high performance off-road vehicle.

Patrick Mimran sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987 for US$25 million. After replacing the Countach with the Diablo and discontinuing the Jalpa and the LM002, Chrysler sold Lamborghini to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and this increased productivity for the brand.

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